Explore the chapters

» Size, Structure and Growth

» Access and Equity

» Private Higher Education

» Financing and Management

» Workforce Development

» Research and Higher Education

» Regulatory Framework

» Quality Management

» Perspectives

Size, Structure and Growth

TODAY, the Indian higher education system is a loose configuration of various types of institutions, based largely on the British model, but also in part on the American model of higher education. In the federal arrangement, most institutions of higher education are under the provincial governments, but several reputed institutions are directly under the national government. The new private sector has not only accelerated the growth, but also added a new dimension to the higher education landscape. The Indian higher education system is now a large and complex body. This chapter maps the institutional structures, enrolment patterns and trends of higher education growth in the country. Trends about Indians enrolled overseas (whether it is brain drain or revenue loss), international students in India, student diversity at the institutional level, growth of open and distance education, comparative enrolment pattern and the emergence of new providers is also examined.

Access and Equity

ISSUES of access and equity are central to the higher education debates in countries around the world. For the Indian higher education system in transition, access and equity became two of its most intriguing aspects. These are very complex issues, intertwined with political, economic, demographic and international dimensions. Rapid growth of higher education, private share in particular has implications on access and equity. In this chapter, first we examine the expanding enrolment and its consequences and limitations on access when higher education is entirely provided by the public sector. With access spurned in public higher education, private higher education grew rapidly. Thus, we discuss in this chapter the changing attitudes towards growing private share. The issue of equity in terms of regional imbalances, differential participation of different groups and the policy of affirmative action for inclusive growth of higher education are discussed in this chapter.

Private Higher Education

THE private sector is the fastest growing segment in higher education in many countries around the world. During the past few years, more private institutions than public ones have been established in most developing countries and emerging economies of the world. While there has been a long tradition of private education in India, prior to independence it was primarily philanthropic. After Independence, when the demand for educational opportunities arose, the public education system expanded to meet this demand. When this demand outpaced the supply, private institutions emerged on the scene. There have been three phases in the growth of private higher education in the country. This chapter maps the growth of private higher education, first as private colleges (many of them becoming aided colleges), then as private deemed universities and finally as private universities established by law. Currently, foreign provision in India is mainly through partnership with private providers, hence it is seen as an extension of private provision. This is discussed. Private expansion has gone hand in hand with the expansion of professional education. Growth of professional education has been analyzed. Institutional diversity, particularly in terms of new types of providers is examined. The Indian experience with private growth has been analyzed in a comparative perspective in the global context. And finally, prospects of private growth are analyzed.

Financing and Management

HIGHER education has been primarily public funded so far. Now it is being funded from a variety of sources. While private financing is important and growing rapidly, institutions now look for diverse sources to expand, meet the rising costs and enhance quality in an increasingly competitive environment. With an explosive growth of the private sector and the growth of self-financing programmes in public institutions, private financing is a significant part of overall financing of Indian higher education. It is now realised that increased funding would not automatically result in better higher education. Thus, while the government support decreases noticeably (at least in relative terms), performance and accountability expectations have increased. Funding policies are designed to enforce accountability. The chapter begins with the conceptual debate on resource flows and examines patterns of public funding, private funding primarily through tuitions and fees and third stream funding in the context of global patterns and trends. To enhance efficiency in the use of resources, fund allocation mechanism and institutional management are important. These are examined. With focus on inclusive growth and achieving equity objective, students’ financial aid is now critical. Schemes of grants and loans, particularly emerging trend towards income-contingent loans are discussed. Finally, the core elements of sustainable funding for India are discussed.

Workforce Development

FOR a technologically driven knowledge economy, a growing number of people in the workforce today require higher education qualifications. Despite highfalutin notions that the main of higher education is to ennoble citizens; this has been main reason for mass expansion of higher education. Ironically, as enrolments in higher education grow, so does the problem of unemployment and underemployment of graduates across a wide range of countries, including

India. Graduate unemployment is much higher than overall level of unemployment, though there are skill shortages in several sectors. This chapter assesses the role of higher education in developing workplace skills and deconstructs skill shortages in India. The chapter begins with explaining the linkages between higher education and economic growth on the one hand and with labour market on the other. It examines the dynamics of the demand and supply of qualified manpower in Indian economy as it integrates with the world economy and shows signs of structural change. Based on its talent pool, India is perceived to be a frontrunner in the global knowledge economy. However, there are concerns that the country’s antiquated higher education and training system might derail the growth process. The chapter analyses these concerns and suggests ways to align higher education with the labour market.

Research and Higher Education

THERE are three inter-related mechanisms: division of labour, capital accumulation and innovation involved in economic growth. Innovation is the most fundamental mechanism—it is self-perpetuating and pushes economic growth on a continuous basis. Each new innovation triggers further innovation in a kind of chain reaction that fuels long-term economic growth. Thus, in several science-based, technologically advanced economies, economic growth has continued for several decades without running out of dynamism, or even slowing down. This chapter explains some key concepts and analyses Indian research in the global context, using several key indicators. It then summarises major developments that define the role of innovation in economic growth and explores its linkage with academic research. Finally, the chapter outlines the manner in which Indian higher education could be organised to create and transfer knowledge in an effective manner to foster and sustain innovation and economic growth.

Regulatory Framework

WHILE, the universities around the world enjoyed exalted status, immense clout, and great autonomy earlier, but now they along with a variety of other providers are subject to accountability policies and are required to demonstrate explicitly that they are efficient, effective and meet desired standards of performance. Regulatory governance, which was missing in most countries around the world till recently, has thus come to occupy centre stage in the discourse on higher education. This chapter begins with the examination of the concept of accountability in higher education. Current organisational structure for regulation of higher education is then mapped and regulatory arrangements, particularly the role of the UGC, the apex body for determination and coordination of standards, is reviewed in detail. Private institutions, the main venue for growth of higher education now, are posing regulatory challenges as never seen before. The regulatory environment for the private sector has therefore been analysed. Regulation of foreign providers is also examined here. An overall evaluation of the regulatory framework is then conducted, before suggesting a broad framework for a new regulatory environment.

Quality Management

WITH the rapid expansion of enrolment in higher education, countries around the world face the challenge of ensuring quality. Thus, quality assurance is the most talked about issue in higher education; it is also the least understood issue. This chapter begins with providing a conceptual framework for quality in the context of higher education and then describes quality assurance system, as it exists in India today. An objective assessment of the existing quality assurance agencies has been done. The accreditation system in the United States, established more than a hundred years ago, is usually treated as a global benchmark. A comparison of the structure and process of accreditation in India with that in the US has been done. Drawing lessons from the US experience, steps required to make accreditation effective in India has been suggested. Many also see accreditation and ratings as branding exercises. Thus, brand orientation in higher education and its impact on quality have been briefly touched. Faculty and its quality has an enduring impact of the quality. New technologies are now being deployed as well to improve the quality of higher education. These two issues have also been discussed in this chapter.

Perspectives

INDIAN higher education landscape is changing rapidly. Demographic bulge, expanding school education and rising aspirations has put considerable pressure for expansion of higher education. There are greater expectations from higher education due to the country’s rapid economic growth, rising incomes, outward orientation and growing optimism. This chapter examines the conclusions reached in the previous chapters in the context of changing socio-economic and political realities and growing optimism. This chapter begins with an examination of the country’s sociopolitical and political circumstances and documents various factors responsible for growing optimism about India in global knowledge economy. It then examines the challenges faced by higher education today. In the context of these challenges, three conceptual issues—purpose, diversity and competition—are analysed. While defining the purpose of higher education, the key question, whether higher education should be publicly financed or privately funded, is analysed. As the higher education sector is growing, it is becoming more diverse and competition is growing fiercer. Diversity and competition feed on each other and are the quintessential elements of a modern system of higher education. These, therefore, are analysed. Next, the status and prospects of Indian higher education is examined in terms of three key cross-cutting themes: access and expansion, equity and inclusion and quality and excellence. These are also the objectives of the Eleventh Five Year Plan. Finally, the changing nature of policy support and the imperative for systemic governance for effective steering of the system to achieve stated goals are analysed.